Abbe Sieyes essays

Abbe Sieyes papers Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, otherwise called Abbe Sieyes, is considered by certain researchers, the pioneer of the early Revolution in France; be that as it may, others think of him as an egotistical, envious man. Regardless of what one accepts, there are some unquestionable realities about Abbe Sieyes. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes was conceived on May third, 1748 in Frejus. His dad was a postmaster and gatherer of ruler's contribution, while his mom was associated with the lower positions of respectability. Sieyes' folks gave him the best training they could bear, first at home under a coach, at that point in the Jesuits' College at Frejus. Most alumni of the school went to military institutes and Sieyes anticipated the equivalent, however was constrained into an alternate occupation. Emmanuel's folks drove him into Holy Orders with the expectation that he would bolster the family, particularly his two siblings. The Bishop of Frejus was a family companion and helped Emmanuel's folks send him to Paris to learn at the Seminary of St. Sulpice. His examinations went on for a long time and he was appointed a cleric in 1773. Two years after his appointment, Abbe Sieyes became secretary to the Bishop of Treguier. His progression in the brotherhood was thwarted obviously, in light of the fact that he originated from a white collar class family that needed honorability. At that point in 1784, he became vicar general and chancellor to the Bishop of Chartres. Abbe Sieyes then turned into an individual from the Provincial Assembly of Orleans in 1787. When the Estates General was brought in late 1788, Abbe Sieyes composed his most well known handout, Qu'est-ce que le Tiers Etat? What is the Third Estate? With its distributing in January 1789, Sieyes turned into a conspicuous figure at the Estates General. On June 12, 1789, Sieyes realized the vote to permit the special to join the Third. At that point on June 17, he achieved the vote that changed the Third into the National Assembly. After one year, Sieyes was casted a ballot leader of the Assembly and of the Jacobian Club. During the following three y... <!

Doing business in emerging economies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Working together in developing economies - Essay Example estimated assembling and flexibly organization, providing food for target showcases inside the United Kingdom’s populace of around 59 million individuals (UK Census, 2001). The items scopes of scents and beautifying agents are focused on the medium to higher acquiring section of guys and females. The official administration has been following world patterns of nearby organizations entering developing markets, and the better than expected returns a portion of these organizations have appeared in a moderately brief timeframe has prod them to take a gander at the chance of going worldwide with Madam Cosmetic’s. After a great deal of joint effort it was chosen to assess the chance and dangers of putting resources into China. This impelling variables for this choice was the market-changes that was actualized in China which brought about the biggest decrease of neediness and probably the quickest increment in salary levels at any point seen. China lackey is the 6th biggest and quickest developing economy on the planet. In 2004, its $1,65 trillion economy was around one-seventh that of the U.S. China’s quickly growing economy and 1,3 billion populace for business, and most worldwide organizations, are either effectively associated with the Chinese market or have plans to do unexpectedly early (Julian Chen. 2005). China is presently one of the quickest developing economies on the planet, driven by unreasonable government going through and an immense flood of cash through the venture of Major International Companies. It is pushed as the nation which presents a brilliant open door for organizations to extend and build their benefits. To verification this reality we have to take a gander at the Macroeconomic markers. As per the Asian Development Bank, China has developed at a normal pace of 7.6% throughout the most recent five years. This development was for the most part in the private division and has constrained market basics to change to address holes and wasteful aspects of state-claimed ventures. China’s low defenselessness to outside stun has helped it to keep up macroeconomic strength regardless of basic

Video Games in Education

Video Games in Education Video Games in Education Home›Informative Posts›Video Games in Education Informative Posts  Technology and Education: Online Video GamingTraditionally, video games were considered to be detrimental and have negative impacts. Anyone opposing the use of video game in the classroom would be justified to say that the main aim of sending a child to school is to learn (Fromme Unger, 2012). In addition, video games consumes considerable amount of time that would otherwise be used in revising class notes and curricula. However, a fundamental question that should be asked here is, should video games be banned if it has been established that they enhance the learning outcome of a child? The truth of the matter is they should not be. While it is true that playing video games results in some negative impacts such as addiction, psychosocial and medical effects and aggressiveness, a wide range of literature dating back to the 1980s has continued to show that video games have several benefits especially when integrated into education (Annetta, 2008). Some of the proposed benefits of video games include: reduction in the reaction times among students, improved hand-eye coordination and increased self-esteem (Martin, 2012). In addition, fun, curiosity and the level of challenge in a video game adds to the potential of positive outcomes of playing the games. The current paper will evaluate whether video games enhance learning outcomes in the classroom.Educationists and policy makers have continuously acknowledged the potential of integrating video games in the classroom, especially after the success of programs such as the Khan Academy. However, people especially many parents, continued to be of the opinion that playing video games is always detrimental. Nevertheless, video games have significantly enhanced the classroom outcome especially for K-12 students (Annetta, 2008).What Video Games Can Teach UsVideo games, regardless of their nature, have become an established prac tice since 1980s (Annetta, 2008). Although video games may have been of low quality, educators had discovered the essence of videogames.  Since then, a lot has changed especially because of technological development, but one thing has remained constant all along; the best educational video games have not been just an educational tool, but a way of showing students that learning can be fun (Hall, Quinn Gollnick, 2014). It is thus important that video games be made part of educating students.It is essential to assess the extent to which video games can be of help to students. Since several scholars have confirmed that video games can contribute to enhanced learning outcome, there has been a rise of what has been termed as “edu-tainment” media (Griffiths, 2010). Observing students play some video games while in classroom is evident enough to show that they are essential in promoting learning outcome. It is thus a wake-up call for video games developers to come up with more games that are education oriented (Hall, Quinn Gollnick, 2014). There is enough evidence suggesting that important skills are developed and reinforced by video games. For instance, spatial visualization because of manipulating or rotating 3D objects, are enhanced by video games (Fromme Unger, 2012). It has also been established that video games have successfully worked for children who began with poor skills. Equalization of student’s differences in spatial skills performance has also been indicated to be improved by video games.In a report prepared by Business Roundtable in 2005, a pertinent question was raised. The report expressed deep distress regarding America’s capability to sustain the continuing trend of technological and scientific superiority (Hall, Quinn Gollnick, 2014). The report went further and recommended that immediate action be taken by the government and all concerned stakeholders to secure a prosperous future for children.   Coming up with technologies that will be in a position to reach what the report termed as “net generation (Annetta, 2008). It is important that educators start viewing video games differently from a traditional society where students were discouraged from engaging in gaming activities. An initiative called “serious games” was started in an attempt to embrace video games as a teaching and training component in education (Griffiths, 2010). The movement aimed at coming up with video games that have the potential to meet the needs of “net generation”.   With increased network connectivity and gadgets, video games are the most current ways that the internet has changed how a generation of young students socialize and view entertainment (Squire, 2006). The notion that video games are now becoming popular has gained the attention of The Federation of American Scientists FAS (Griffiths, 2010). According to the federation, video game is the next great discovery because of their ability to captivate learners to the ex tent of spending quality learning time on their own. However, FAS noted that most of the commercial games are not educational oriented hence there is the need for the government to invent or financially support games developers to come up with educational games (Griffiths, 2010).One of the video games that can be described as being education and successful is the Immune Attack developed by FAS (Griffiths, 2010). It was developed thanks to the initiative between the University of Southern California and Brown University. The game was developed as an attempt to educate students on the widely held difficult topic of immunology. In the game, a student must teach his or her immune how to function properly or die. The human body serves as the playing field and immune cells faceoff against viral and bacterial infections. Another successfully used video game aiming to educate students is the Food Force that was developed by the WFP in 2005 (Griffiths, 2010). The player must engage in food d istributing missions in a famine affected nation so that the nation becomes healthy and self-sufficient again. In the game, a player can become an expert in nutrition, director of food programs, an appeals officer or a pilot.From the above examples it is evident that educational games require a player to have good logic and sharp memory, be able to make decisions or become a problem solver, use critical thinking skills, discover and have good visualization (Squire, 2006). Therefore, incorporating video games in the present day classroom will enhance a student’s ability not just in the classroom, but also in the society.Video games and learningChange is inevitable, and advances in technology are shifting learning from the traditional library to mobile devices (Griffiths, 2010). It is thus important for stakeholders to cultivate the use of video games in several ways. For example, in enhancing language skills, game developers have come up with video games that involve discussion and sharing, following direction from the game, giving directions and answering questions (Hall, Quinn Gollnick, 2014). In addition, the presence of internet has facilitated online gaming where students can interact with other students from all over the world and discuss some topic with the help of visual aids. Video games also promote basic Math among young students in that a player must interact with the score counters. Modern video games have facilitated basic reading skills as well. Video games with character dialog printed on the screen have facilitated basic reading since a player must be able to read instructions such as load, change, go, quit or play (Fromme Unger, 2012). Traditional learning experience for students involved sharing among themselves and the teacher. However, video games might help in revolutionizing classroom interaction especially in the internet. As a result, the student’s social skills are enhanced.It is important to note that video games are not only go od for “fully functioning” or “normal” students, but they can also be applied to children or learners with multiple disabilities or handicapped such as those with limited vocal speech acquisition (Hall, Quinn Gollnick, 2014). Other researchers have successfully used video games to facilitate learning among disabled children in their spatial abilities, mathematical abilities and problem-solving skills. Some researchers have suggested how technology can be utilized in present day learning to enhance learning outcome. Anthropologists and sociologists have also strongly supported the idea of playing. They have suggested that play is part of human activity and thus video games playing means those students will have a better chance of conceptualizing things they theoretically learnt in class (Fromme Unger, 2012).In conclusion, debate on whether to introduce video game in the classroom for learning purpose may continue for several years because research on this field may be scarc e. However, it is evident from several successful video games that indeed incorporating technology in the classroom should not only involve doing away with the books and embracing online learning, but also introduce more exciting technology to make learning easier and more fun. It may take time before this concept is widely replicated in the entire education system, but where it has been implemented, learning outcome has been enhanced. The best thing that the government and all stakeholders in the education should do is embrace a multi-sector approach to video games.   Sociologists, anthropologists, behaviorist and game or content developers should come together and design games that will have maximum impact on the learning experience for students. Parents remain vulnerable to any information concerning video games and learning. However, it is time that the government reaffirms its position in the current classroom and at the same time prepares the future classroom where anticipatio n about video game remains high. The commercial market has a lot to offer, it is thus important that teachers, facilitators, and parents evaluate the games they recommend for their children or pupils. Not all video games promote the health or education and because of technological advancement-game upgrades, it has constantly become challenging in evaluating the educational impact across several studies.ReferencesAnnetta, L. A. (2008). Video games in education: Why they should be used and how they are being used.  Theory into Practice,  47,  3, 229-239.Fromme, J., Unger, A. (2012).  Computer games and new media cultures: A handbook of digital games studies. Dordrecht: Springer.Griffiths, M. (2010). Online video gaming: What should educational psychologists know?.  Educational Psychology in Practice,  26,  1, 35-40.Hall, G. E., Quinn, L. F., Gollnick, D. M. (2014).  Introduction to teaching: Making a difference in student learning. London : SAGE PublicationsMartin, J. (2012). Game o n: The challenges and benefits of video games.  Bulletin of Science, Technology Society,  32,  5, 343-344.Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience.  Educational Researcher,  35,  8, 19-29.

Propagand During World War II - 713 Words

Miyu Hirose Fisher World History 4 25 February 2016 Propaganda Poster During World War 1, propaganda played a critical role on a global scale, persuading people to volunteer by putting effort to the war. Propaganda techniques were used for several purposes, in forms of posters, advertising, newspapers, speeches, photographs, rumours, cinema and music. These purposes were to obtain power for the battles of the war, to obtain money for financing the war, to encourage nationalistic feelings of their country to help in the war, and to justify the reason for why the countries were involved in the war so that the people don t rebel against the war. Propaganda, as defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is the â€Å"spreading of ideas, information, or rumor for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person.† The use of propaganda became very popular and successful in countries, such as Great Britain, Germany, and the U.S.A. It also proved that America was the largest producer of pro-war propaganda in the world. Propaganda posters were used commonly to encourage people to join and to make a difference. The posters suggested many ways for the people of the countries to be involved in the war, like suggesting that people should buy liberty bonds or military bonds in order to help the country financially, calling for men to fight and to go the front, drawing women to factories so that they can help with the shells of the bombs and sometimes with the guns, and

Effective Communication Is Enhanced By Good Communication...

Communication involves the exchange of ideas and thoughts between two or more people with the aim of conveying information. Effective communication is enhanced by good communication skills. Good communication skills are important in all walks of life because it enables people to interact and convey information in an effective manner. For example, a doctor requires good communication skills in order to get the needed information from a patient. Failure to portray good communication skills by the doctor means that the patient will not be in a position to provide the required information to the doctor. This means that competence in any place of work requires being augmented with good communication skills in order to achieve the best results†¦show more content†¦My good speaking skills enable me to convey my ideas in clear and brief manner. One way through which my speaking skills enhance my communication is my pleasant tone to my voice. The pleasant tone of my voice makes the p eople whom I am speaking to be more attentive and interested in communicating. In addition, the tone of my voice enables the person I am communicating with to be more attentive and as a result capturing all the important ideas. Moreover, when I am communicating with a person I try to think before I speak so as to avoid conveying ideas which are not important to the person. This enables me to choose words selectively while speaking so as to avoid hurting the person I am speaking to. Another important of thinking before I speak is that I am able to remember additional points that might be useful to the person I am speaking to. Moreover, when speaking I ensure that the person whom I am talking to has enough time of answering the questions I present to him and enough time to present his ideas. When he is talking I listen to him keenly and I empathize with him where possible so as make him feel to be part of the discussion (Wigert et al 2013). My good speaking skills as strength have assisted me in many ways when speaking to different people. For example last year I displayed this strength when I was explaining to my teacher the reason why I submitted by assignment late. When IShow MoreRelatedRelevance of Communication and Teamwork in Midwifery903 Words   |  4 Pagesideally possess a number of skills so as to effectively execute their mandate. Amongst such skills, the relevance of communication and teamwork cannot be overstated. This is more so the case given the critical role midwives play as far as the provision of care to women, babies as well as families is concerned. This text concerns itself with communication and teamwork as two graduate attributes necessary for success in the midwifery profession. The Relevance of Communication and Teamwork in Midwifery Read MoreEffective Communication And Good Leadership Skills1340 Words   |  6 Pages(Linjuan Rita Men, 2015). 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The content of the course provided me the opportunity to explore more about my personal and professional strengths and weakness with the perspective of leadershipRead Moreâ€Å"to Be an Effective Manager, You Have to Be a Good Listener†1152 Words   |  5 PagesHarvey (2006:160) Listening is the first communication skill we practice as infants, and from listening to other people around us, we learn how to speak. We listen far more than we speak, read or write; possibly up to 75% of the time, yet it is a communication skill we are not formally taught. We can close our eyes and mouth and can leave the keyboard or pen alone, but our ears are constantly open. We are frequently told to ‘ listen up’, that we ‘weren’t listening ‘, that we ‘never listen’, but we

Dangers of the Internet Free Essays

Many people view the internet as an ultimate resource for anything they desire. The people who say that the internet is a brilliant invention for the best have reasons backing up their idea. For example, Sherry Turkle writes about such ideas explaining how the internet is an excellent tool for the better in her essay, â€Å"Can You Hear Me Now? † Turkle believes strongly that the invention of the internet is an innovation for the better and emphasizes to her readers how important it is in everyone’s lives nowadays. We will write a custom essay sample on Dangers of the Internet or any similar topic only for you Order Now On the other hand, some believe exactly the opposite of Turkle’s invalid inquisition that the internet is a tool that is most definitely not for the greater good. The internet is a major promoter of violence and bad habits, it allows abusers to reach people that do not want to be reached and it opens many of us up to identity theft and malware viruses. The internet is an extremely risky device that many of the common users take for granted due to the lack of knowledge of its dangers. With the great power that the internet provides comes great responsibility that its users must also provide. Just like many other things, there are people who lack such responsibility and use the internet with bad intentions. Influencing Violence The first point of discussion pertaining to the harmfulness of the World Wide Web is that it is a great promoter of violence and bad habits. Users are free to roam to any type of website they please, whether it is a game site, social networking site, forum site and etcetera. The internet has no restrictions as to what people put on websites and web pages. Much like violence in video games, the internet can influence violence towards its users as well. Michele L. Ybarra speaks about the amount that children are influenced by the violent website on the internet today in her essay â€Å"Linkages Between Internet and Other Media Violence With Seriously Violent Behavior by Youth,† which was published in the â€Å"Official Journal Of The American Academy Of Pediatrics. † The internet is a host to many violent games and violent based websites alike. About 97% of the youth ages 12-18 are using online communications and have online access (Ybarra 929). With this many kids on the internet they can browse and view hate pages which discriminate against people or they can come across violent related web pages as well (Ybarra 930). With this increased exposure to these websites, causes an increase in violent behavior among our youth. Ybarra and her team conducted a study of 10-15 year old children and the effects of the different sources of violent media on their real habits. The results showed substantial results of increased violent behavior among the group that was associated with the violent media (Ybarra 933). Results reported that the violent behaviors included shooting or stabbing, aggravated assault, robbery and sexual assault (Ybarra 933). Among the many types of media that was studied such as: music, video games, television and the internet, the type of media that was the most influential was the internet (Ybarra 933). Ybarra goes to show her readers that most of all websites used included killing, fighting and shooting which in correlation contributed to the stimulus of the children’s anger level, having delinquent friends, and substance use such as drugs and alcohol (933). The monitoring of what our children view on the internet is crucial towards their health and well being, without monitoring our children are prone to be influenced by immoral and violence behaviors. Reaching Those Who do Not Want to be Reached Another harmful risk that the internet so willfully provides is the dangers of domestic violence and child predators. The internet allows predators and violent domestic partners to access people and children on a wide scale with the click of a mouse. The various social networking sites that the internet provides is practically like a database for people to access whoever they want. Although children and the victims of domestic violence do not want to be reached by predators and violent spouses, it is easy for these terrible people to reach them without their own consent. As I myself say, the internet is â€Å"Stalking made easy. † In her article, â€Å"Friend Request or Foe,† Laurie L. Baughman persuades her audience of the dangers and risks pertaining to internet stalking, mainly pertaining to domestic violence. Baughman is a senior attorney at the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence, thus giving her the right to speak about the topic. Facebook itself has over 400 million active viewers, and it considered the most popular online social networking sight for adults and children alike (Baughman 933). Baughman also points out that Facebook users in total upload approximately three billion photos every month and the average user spends about 55 minutes a day on the site (934-935). With such astronomical numbers like these, this introduces a whole new type of stalking based violence that was once again introduced by the internet. To start, pertaining to the issue of domestic violence, which is the major topic that Baughman discusses in her essay. She feels that it is an extremely dangerous asset that the internet has brought upon society. Baughman asserts in her essay â€Å"†¦Internet users who are victims of domestic violence may be vulnerable to further abuse or may experience harassment or stalking through these social networking mediums† (935). This quote offers a brief summary of the topic that Baughman is most concerned about in her essay, which will be addressed below. Domestic violence is defined as abusive behavior in a relationship to gain or maintain power, all of which can be done by actions or threats (Baughman 936). To show how much of a problem domestic violence has become; Baughman uses the quote â€Å"An estimated 1. million women are victims of physical assault each year† (936). With the amount of people attached to the internet today, many domestic assaults root from internet stalking. These social networking website were people post pictures and information about themselves has become a source of vulnerability of victims of domestic violence (Baughman 940). For example, many of us post pictures and personal information on Facebook, but what many do not know is that there can be bad people that we do not want seeing this information looking at it as well. Many of you may be familiar with the quote from Spiderman â€Å"With great power comes great responsibility,† this is much like the quote from Baughman’s essay when she states â€Å"Using technology is like a super power: you can use it for bad and you can use it for good† (940). This quote from Baughman’s piece stresses her concern of how much power comes from the internet and how people can use this power by means of harming other people. With this power that the internet has given to anybody who uses it, comes people who use it by means of stalking. The term cyber-stalking came directly from the invention of the internet and it is defined as behavior that constitutes â€Å"computer† based harassment (Baughman 940-941). Such stalkers do things such as: monitoring other people’s email, sending email threats or insults, disrupting email communication, using others email identity and using the internet to get personal information (Baughman 941). Although many may see all of these as an invasion of privacy, with the power the internet has given us, most of them are very simple to do and done quite often. In her essay Baughman shows her readers how cyber-stalking often leads to physical staking (941). With the small amount of difficulty that cyber-stalking is, often an abusive partner uses it to maintain power and control over their victim (Baughman 941). All of the above ways discussed, pertaining cyber-stalking can allow an abuser to access their victim through the internet, even if the victim has set up an internet protection, which will be discussed in the next topic (Baughman 941). Baughman uses an example of such harassment through emails in her essay; she tells us a story of how an abusive husband sent 1,500 pages of threatening emails to his ex-wife even when she had a restraining order placed on him (944). To sum up Baughman’s essay, due to social networking sights allowing individuals to freely post photos, comments, and other personal information, the internet acts as a personal information super-highway that is easily reached by abusers (965). A simple search of a persons name can bring up very personal information that abusers can easily access (Baughman 965). In sum, social networking sights and the internet are tools for communication, blogging, picture sharing and now vengeance by abusers. Roam at your own risk (Baughman 953). Nobody, including domestic partner are safe when on the internet. The next point of discussion relating to how abusers can access people who do not want to be reached is the issue of child predators on the internet. The author L. Alvin Malesky, Jr. , PhD in the Department of Psychology writes his essay â€Å"Predatory Online Behavior: Modus Operandi of Convicted Sex Offender in Identifying Potential Victims and Contacting Minors Over the Internet,† in correlation to this topic. Most sex offenders know their victims before even meeting it them, they become acquainted through the internet (Malesky 24). As discussed previously in Baughman’s essay, this task of becoming acquainted with anyone you want is relatively easy with the amount of social networking websites today. Predators tend to disguise themselves as another teenager and lie about their identity, the internet provides them with ideal cover that can fool even the smartest of children (Malesky 24). In his essay Malesky affirms â€Å"Chat rooms were the most frequently used component of the Internet to identify and contact potential victims† (26). When a child that talks about sex in anyway on the internet, it is found appealing by pedophiles and is often the reason why pedophiles go after a specific child (Malesky 27). This warning given by Malesky shows her readers how every little thing you say, post or do on the internet can be viewed by these disturbing people and can possibly make you their next target. These sex offenders patrol the virtual world in hopes to find a victim and eventually meet with them in person. People are free to surf the web, the type of people that lean towards an attraction to children are also free to do as they please. The internet give minors vulnerability to people who wish to do them harms (Malesky 30). In conclusion to his topic Malesky tells warns his readers that children should not post anything sexual on the internet or talk to people you do not know, you never know who may be looking or listening (Malesky 30)! Children are put in harms way while online, thus in sum urging how unsafe the internet really is. Cyber-Crime Lastly, the internet itself has brought forth a new type of crime everywhere in the world. The term cyber-crime refers to crime that takes place from a computer through the internet. These cyber-criminals can steal your identity, take your personal information and even give your computer a virus without ever leaving their computer desk. The root cause of this new crime is directly due to the invention of the internet. As was previously stated, the internet is a tool that requires responsibility. Criminals take no such responsibility when performing illegal cyber-crime related acts. Nobody is safe when they are on the internet with the growing amount of yber-criminals today. Kit Burden discusses the issue of the increasing problem of cyber-criminals in her essay, â€Å"Internet crime; Cyber Crime – A new breed of criminal? † which was published in â€Å"Science Direct† (College Edition). Burden starts out her essay by showing her readers that 43% of Americans recognize cyber-crime as a problem (2). These types of crime have been introduced to the world thanks to the invention of the World Wide Web. The first example of a cyber criminal I would like to point out is the increasingly more and more common hacker. Hackers use technology to gain unauthorized access to private computer systems, which is mostly for the purpose of retrieving confidential information such as credit card number and internet passwords (Burden 3). If the hacker has used a computer for functions with intent of retrieving other peoples information and date, this is considered illegal based off the Computer Misuse Act in 1990 (Burden 4). A hacker can obtain the most confidential of information on your computer, for example they can take your credit card information and use it as their own. Hackers may also go onto company website and alter what their information reads for terms such as of political leads and malicious intent such as cyber terrorism (Burden 4). Secondly, with the increasing threat of hackers, there is also an increasing threat of credit card fraud. These two go hand in hand with each other because hackers much of the time aim to receive others credit card information illegally by hacking. Burden points out that there is an estimated four billion dollars lost to credit card fraud each year and fifty percent of that money lost comes from online credit card fraud/hacking (9). Burden also points out how vastly internet related commerce is growing, therefore so will the amount of money lost to credit card fraud due to the increasing dangers posed by hackers (9). Along with credit card information, we must not forget that hackers can steal information such as accounts that you have set up online, which can hold your payment information and use them as well, the same goes for your email account. Lastly, on top of all that hackers can install malicious software onto your personal computer without you knowing. Viruses are embedded within files which you may think to be real; however they can be completely the opposite and trick you into downloading a virus. Most of the time, if one clicks on the virus itself it will download without you even noticing. Viruses can do whatever the maker of the virus wants them too. Viruses such as a key logger are planted on a computer and it will show the hacker who made the viruses every key you input into the computer. For example, if you type in your credit card information, the hacker will now be able to view it. The famous ‘Love Bug’ virus was released two years ago and single handedly completely shut down and paralyzed over 100 million computers (Burden 5). Because viruses can be spread to many users at a very fast pace and often can not be erased, they are looked down upon by the government and are taken extreme legal action against (Burden 6). Conclusion In conclusion, one has learned a great amount about the internet and the harm that it can bring. The internet puts a great amount of power into the hands of anyone who decides to use it, a power that should not be tampered with and often is by its abusers. Many reasons validate the inquisition that the internet is not a resource for the greater good but it is a tool that can and frequently is used for promoting violence and bad habits, allowing abusers to reach people that do not want to be reached and lastly, it opens many of us up to identity theft and malware viruses. We must all think twice about using the internet and if we do hopefully now we will take extra precautions especially when giving the power to roam the web to our children. The internet is an extremely dangerous place and we must not forget, nobody is safe when they are on the internet! How to cite Dangers of the Internet, Essay examples

The Yellow Wallpaper Feminist Viewpoint Essay Example

The Yellow Wallpaper: Feminist Viewpoint Essay The Yellow Wallpaper is a much acclaimed nineteenth century short story authored by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. It first appeared in The New England Magazine in 1892. Upon its publication it proved controversial and provocative due to its bold portrayal of women’s sexuality and psychology. The story is also unique, for it adopts the epistolary style, which is a device uncommonly used in short fiction. The letters/journal entries record the experiences of a woman who is confined by her husband to the bedroom upstairs. She is ordered not to work or exert herself in any which way, so that her recovery from ‘temporary nervous depression – a slight hysterical tendency’ will be quick and effective. In what amounts to a house-arrest by her husband, the woman’s condition steadily descends toward psychosis due to lack of variety and distraction in the bed-room existence. For example, â€Å"the character becomes increasingly perplexed by the garish color and the intricate patterns of the wallpaper all around her. She begins to see distorted shapes, eventually identifying a woman trapped behind the paper fighting to get out. The story ends with the narrator’s husband discovering his wife maniacally circling the bedroom, surrounded by the tattered shreds of paper she has torn from the walls. He faints at the sight.† (USA Today, 2010, p.4) The rest of the essay will present the feminist interpretation of this important piece of American women’s literature. During the feminist movement of early twentieth century, many feminist scholars were up in arms against the gross injustice depicted in the story. The inequalities prevalent in patriarchal American society of late nineteenth century is pointed at and criticized. The insensitivity and high-handedness of healthcare professionals, especially psychiatrists, is also highlighted. Since Gilman drew the material for the story from her own experiences in getting cured of depression, her interaction with the famous nervous diseases specialist Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell is relevant for the discussion. As one of the many physicians who debated ‘the woman question’, he â€Å"defended the notion of significant differences between the sexes and argued that an epidemic of neurasthenia, or nervous exhaustion, was rife among women who attempted to exceed their natural limits. He recommended a â€Å"rest cure† in which the patient was not allowed to read, write, feed herself, or talk to others–or, as Charlotte described it: â€Å"Live as domestic a life as possible †¦ and never touch pen, brush, or pencil as long as you live.†Ã¢â‚¬  (USA Today, 2010, p.4) We will write a custom essay sample on The Yellow Wallpaper: Feminist Viewpoint specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Yellow Wallpaper: Feminist Viewpoint specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Yellow Wallpaper: Feminist Viewpoint specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The feminist grievance with respect to the prognosis of the condition lies in the fact that the depressed woman saw recuperation in totally different terms. For example, instead of spending time within the bounds of four walls, she felt an active social life would lift her out of the mental morose. This Charlotte Gilman masterpiece challenges traditional notions about gender that excluded them from mainstream political and intellectual life. It also questions how medical and scientific experts drew on notions of female weakness to justify inequality between the sexes. In Gilman’s own life, she was discouraged from pursuing a career to preserve her health. Hence the authorial voice is both autobiographical as well as generally representative of women of the era. (Delashmit Long, 1991, p.32) Gilman lived at a time when society was getting torn by two contradictory ideologies – True Womanhood and Women’s Rights. Through her works (including The Yellow Wallpaper) she firmly sied with the cause of women’s rights. She â€Å"stood for the potentialities of American womanhood and struggled to free herself from true to free woman. As a woman and as an author, she perceptively analyzed the most basic conditions under which -women live out their lives and developed her seminal ideas: the crucial necessity for women to have careers outside the home; the ironclad oppression of patriarchal culture; the stultifying effects of the nineteenth century doctrine of the â€Å"woman’s sphere†; the impossible â€Å"double-bind† experience of the woman artist, and the depression and emotional breakdown which often result. Most obviously, Gilman replaces the â€Å"pure woman,† the Victorian angel in the house, with the New Woman who rejects â€Å"the biological yoke of femininity† and claims the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of a human being.† (Quawas, 2006, p.35) The most radical perspective of The Yellow Wallpaper lies in the interpretation of the narrator’s deteriorating mental condition as a method of preserving sanity. In other words, her newfound health and well being springs forth from a rejection of and escape from an insane society. In this respect, Gilman’s main contribution to feminism lies in â€Å"her de-authorizing and de-privileging of the ideologically-saturated discourse of insanity. In her discussion of insanity, she confronts and critiques, either explicitly or implicitly, the patriarchal version of insanity and dis-empowers its authority. She condemns social systems, both political and private, which contribute to women’s psychological fragmentation, alienation, and madness.† (Quawas, 2006, p.35) In conclusion, The Yellow Wallpaper is a key text in modern feminist discourse, although the social context in which it was written no longer fully exists. Reading the story can develop the reader’s understanding of the ‘woman question’ in the nineteenth century and advance or extend their historical sense. The changes advocated by Gilman through her work go beyond mere adjustment of power relation. She envisions sweeping change, whereby society’s very conception of what it means to be a man or a woman would undergo alteration. To the extent that this transformation is a progressive one, The Yellow Wallpaper will remain a masterpiece of feminist literature. Works Cited: â€Å"Bed Rest Wouldn’t Do for Pioneering Feminist.† USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education) Feb. 2010: 4+. Delashmit, Margaret, and Charles Long. â€Å"Gilman’s the Yellow Wallpaper.† Explicator 50.1 (1991): 32-33. Quawas, Rula. â€Å"A New Woman’s Journey into Insanity: Descent and Return in the Yellow Wallpaper.† AUMLA : Journal of the Australasian Universities Modern Language Association (2006): 35+.

Culture And Society Essay Sample Essays

Culture And Society Essay Sample Essays Culture And Society Essay Sample Essay Culture And Society Essay Sample Essay Society and culture in sociology It is true that the way we perceive our environment make us different. It is in line with the inspiration one derives from the association with our environment. It is of the essence to note that environment is the surrounding whereby the nature of surrounding will shape a person and their perception of the world and pother things. The implication in this is that he association between a person and the environment will arouse positive or negative aspects about life. The nature of environment could be friendly or unfriendly influencing a person perception toward the parties there in or life in general. For instance, if a person grew up in an environment where the police used to harass people for no important reason then such a person will develop a negative attitude toward police. The environment in this case terms as aspects surrounding a person consciously or subconsciously. Moreover, the way a person perceives his or her environment will determine whether they appreciate it the way it is or they are not happy with it. There are people who are conscious and are willing to make the environment better. These are people who are willing and striving to make life better for themselves and for others. For instance, in he course of history there are people who have worked hard into influencing people to take care for environment. These people who have positive attitude towards environment tend to spread he message that people owe the future generations a proper environment. It is an environment characterized by all forms of trees, wildlife, water catchment area maintained., rivers, streams and other natural aspects. These people strive in making the world better buy ensuring that while people have current needs in such things as timber, hey should responsibly use them. such a [person is different because he or she perceives he environment ass under control of m an and hi responsibility to care for it for present and future generations. Also, people holding such perception are disappointed by the continued changing in climate as a result of green house emissions. on the other hand, there are those who hold the perception that it is the responsibility of the environment to provide. The implication under this perception is ha people should take from the environment without giving back. These are people who do not care whether their activities are causing harm to the environment or not. There are such people who own industries and direct the waste materials from their factories into the rivers or ocean. hr ar others who are only concerned with cutting trees and getting the benefits without thinking about planting more tree. The aspect of care to both people and environment is shaped by how a [person perceives the environment. It is for this reason that a person will strive making life for other better while others will strive in meeting their selfish needs. There are people who are capable and willing to compensate people who work for them well because environment has shaped their character that way while others do the opposite.

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand 1914

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand 1914 The assassination of an Austrian Archduke was the trigger for World War I, yet things were so nearly different. His death set off a chain reaction, as  mutual defense alliances  mobilized a list of countries, including Russia, Serbia, France, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, to declare war.   An Unpopular Archduke and an Unpopular Day In 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand was heir to both the Habsburg throne and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was not a popular man, having married a woman who – while a Countess – was deemed far below his station, and their children had been barred from the succession. Nevertheless, he was the heir and had both interests in the state and state commitments, and in 1913 he was asked to visit newly annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina and inspect their troops. Franz Ferdinand accepted this engagement, as it meant his usually sidelined and insulted wife would officially be with him. Ceremonies were planned for June 28th, 1914 in Sarajevo, the couple’s wedding anniversary. Unfortunately, this was also the anniversary of the First Battle of Kosovo, the struggle in 1389 which Serbia had convinced itself saw Serbian independence crushed by their defeat to the Ottoman Empire. This was a problem, because many in the newly independent Serbia claimed Bosnia-Herzegovina for themselves, and fumed at Austria-Hungary’s recent annexation. Terrorism One man in particular who took particular umbrage at this event was Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb had devoted his life to protecting Serbia, no matter the consequences. Assassinations and other politically charged murders were not out of the question for Princip. Despite being more bookish than charismatic, he managed to enlist the support of a small group of friends, who he convinced to kill Franz Ferdinand and his wife on June 28th. It was to be a suicide mission, so they wouldn’t be around to see the result. Princip claimed to have originated the plot himself but he did not have trouble finding allies for the mission: friends to train. The most important group of allies was the Black Hand, a secret society in the Serb army, who provided Princep and his co-conspirators with pistols, bombs,  and poison. Despite the complexity of the operation, they managed to keep it under wraps.  There were rumors of a vague threat that reached all the way up to the Serbian Prime Minister, but they quickly dismissed.   The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand On Sunday June 28th, 1914, Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie traveled in a motorcade through Sarajevo; their car was open topped and there was little security. The would-be assassins positioned themselves at intervals along the route. Initially, one assassin threw a bomb, but it rolled off the convertible roof and exploded against the wheel of a passing car, causing only minor injuries. Another assassin couldn’t get the bomb out of his pocket because of the crowd’s density, a third felt too close to a policeman to try, a fourth had an attack of conscience over Sophie and a fifth ran off. Princip, away from this scene, thought he’d missed his chance. The royal couple continued with their day as normal, but after the display at the Town Hall Franz Ferdinand insisted he visit the mildly injured members of his party in the hospital. However, confusion led to the driver heading to their original destination: a museum. As the vehicles stopped in the road to decide which route to take, Princip found himself next to the car. He drew his pistol and shot the Archduke and his wife at point-blank range. He then tried to shoot himself, but the crowd stopped him. He then took poison, but it was old and simply caused him to vomit; the police then arrested him before he was lynched. Within half an hour, both targets were dead. The Aftermath No one in Austria-Hungary’s government was particularly upset by Franz Ferdinand’s death; indeed, they were more relieved he was not going to cause any more constitutional problems. Across the capitals of Europe, few other people were overly upset, except the Kaiser in Germany, who had tried to cultivate Franz Ferdinand as a friend and ally. As such, the assassination didn’t seem to be a major, world-changing event. But Austria-Hungary had been looking for an excuse to attack Serbia, and this provided them with the cause they needed. Their actions would soon trigger World War I, leading to years of bloody slaughter on a largely static Western Front, and repeated failures by the Austrian army on the Eastern and Italian Fronts. At the end of the war the Austro-Hungarian Empire had collapsed, and Serbia found itself the core of a new Kingdom of the ​Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.    Test your knowledge of the origins of WWI.

Write a discussion and conclusion for every chart Essay

Write a discussion and conclusion for every chart - Essay Example rvey respondents (international students) had no close American friends and would have liked more meaningful interaction with people born here† (par. 3). As such, racial discrimination still exists as the primary cause of discrimincation in contemporary university settings. Figure 2 illustrates that from among the causes of discrimination, stereotyping was identified by 7 out of 17 respondents as the predominant cause; followed by media (5); lack of knowledge (2) and gender differences (2); and poverty (1). Although poverty was noted only by one respondent as the cause of discrimination, the study written by Moorman & Wicks-Smith (2012) that â€Å"with one quick look students are generally able to size up who is wealthy and who is poor; who is a "have" and who is a "have not"† (p. 141). As such, stereotyping was the predominant cause of discrimination that is an indication of social perceptions that have persistent through time. Figure 3 illustrates that from 19 respondents, it was revealed that only 48% or 9 respondents have average knowledge about discrimination support networks; followed by 26% who does not have much knowledge; 16% who have some knowledge; and 5% for both sets of respondents who are on the extremes – a lot of knowledge and no knowledge at all. The average knowledge of students on the presence of discrimination networks indicate that there are majority of students who could not avail and access support due to insufficient awareness of the existence of support networks to address discrimination issues. As indicated, school psychologists are identified to assume the crucial role of enhancing awareness, to wit: â€Å"working for social justice in the educational setting means guiding students and staff to reflect critically on their roles in proliferating racism and discrimination and supporting systemic change to prevent ongoing inequities† (NASP, 2012, p. 2). Figure 4 illustrates the results on the methods deemed most effective by

MANAGING INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

MANAGING INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY - Essay Example In-fact, the operational efficiency of the company largely owes due to the application of advanced technologies in its various operational sections. Hence, owing to this aspect, the statement or the assumption of Carr can be contradicted up to a larger extent. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Introduction 4 Company’s Profile in the Industry 5 Competitive Environment of the Global Retail Industry (Porter Five Forces Analysis) 6 Bargaining Power of the Buyers 7 Bargaining Power of the Suppliers 7 Threat of New Entrants 7 Thereat of Substitutes 8 Intensity of Rivalry 8 Role of Information System in Tesco PLC 9 Analysis and Conclusion 11 Analysis 11 Conclusion 13 References 15 Introduction In today’s business scenario, the success and failure of any sort of business depends mainly upon various deciding factors that impose considerable influence on the operations. These factors may be related to customers’ perceptions and their level of satisfaction among others. These ar e often regarded as major determinants of the overall organisational success. In this regard, the role of information technology (IT) has become quite crucial, acting as a major element in enhancing the operational efficiency of the business. ... It is one of those elements, which is extensively available and any company can adopt the same. Hence, it cannot be regard as a tool to gain competitive advantage. To analyse this statement of Carr in an in-depth manner, this paper will evaluate the role of IT in organisations with the help of taking an organisation named Tesco as an example. Accordingly, the statement of Carr can be contradicted or supported on the basis of the analysis made over the organisation. Company’s Profile in the Industry As per the discussion of Nicholas Carr, the presence of information technology (IT) in business does not make any difference in the overall performance of the business. According to Carr, this is owing to the fact that IT is easily accessible for each and every company in their operation and hence it cannot be implemented as a tool for gaining competitive advantage. In order to get a comprehensive understanding in this regard and analysing the statement of Carr, considering the exam ple of Tesco will be quite vital. Tesco is regarded as one of the leading grocery and merchandise retailers throughout the world, which has its operational headquarter in the United Kingdom. In terms of profit earning, the company is regarded as the second largest operator of the world next to Wal-Mart. It has widespread operations throughout the world and it performs various operational functions in a large scale. In the present day context, the company possess greater percentage of market share in the global retail industry. The large scale operations of the company can be apparently depicted from the fact that it currently employs more than 530,000 people all over the world. Observably, one of the major reasons for the

Manufacturing Resource Planning Models

Manufacturing Resource Planning Models Manufacturing Resource Planning Models under Uncertainty and Commonality for Multi-products Multi-period Multistage Production Environment Chapter 3: Literature Review In this chapter, the following areas of research are investigated to lay the foundation for the intended mathematical models: manufacturing resources planning background, benefits and limitations; manufacturing resources planning models under different uncertainties; and commonality in manufacturing resources planning models. 3.1 Evolution of manufacturing environment The field of production planning and control has undergone tremendous change in the last 50 years. Prior to the 1960s, inventory was controlled by a manual system, utilizing various techniques: stock replenishment, reorder points, EOQ (economic order quantity) (McGarrie, 1998), and ABC classifications, to name a few (Ptak, 1991). Gilbert and Schonberger (1983) provide a history of production control, while Lee (1993) comments that by the mid-1970s, enough experience of material requirements planning (MRP) had been gained and the importance of the master production schedule (MPS) was realized. In the 1950s, MRP were the first off-the-shelf business applications to support the creation and maintenance of material master data and bill-of-materials (demand-based 14 planning) across all products and parts in one or more plants. These early packages were able to process mass data but only with limited processing depth (Klaus et al., 2000). From the 1940s to the early 1960s, material control consisted of basic ‘order point formulae used to maintain a level average inventory balance. In 1965, Joseph Orlicky of the J. I. Case Company devised a new approach to material management, called material requirement planning (MRP) to serve as a platform to answer four questions, known as the ‘Universal Manufacturing Equation (Towers et al., 2005): What are we going to make, What does it take to make, What do we have and What do we have to get. The respective answer of the first three questions lie in the blueprint of production plan: the master production schedule (MPS), the bill of material (BOM) and the physical inventory records themselves. While MRP was certainly a vast improvement over simple manual method, the potential to stretch its boundary even further was soon recognized. A companys production is constrained by not only its inventory need but also by equipment and personnel capacity, facet of the plant not considered in the Universal Manufacturing Equation. MRP at its core is a time phased order release system that schedules and releases manufacturing work orders and purchase orders, so that sub-assemblies and components arrive at the assembly station just as they are required. As competitive pressures increased and users became more sophisticated, MRP evolved and expanded to include more business functions such as product costing and marketing. In 1975 the next generation system, Closed-Loop MRP, integrated capacity factors into the MRP structure and used feedback on production status to maintain the validity of planning decisions as requirements changed. One crucial link in the manufacturing decision chain was still missing- the financial point of view. With advent of computer system in the early 1980s the development of effective shop-floor scheduling tools had at that time been dominated by the top down approach of manufacturing resource planning known as MRP II for controlling production operations (Towers et al., 2005). The introduction of MRP II five years later served to bridge the gap. The operational Closed-Loop MRP plan, presented in material units such as pieces and pounds, was translated into financial dollar terms, enabling the entire organization to work off a single set of data. Simulation capability was also developed to answer ‘what if planning questions with action oriented replies. A major purpose of MRP II is to integrate primary functions (i.e. production, marketing and finance) and other functions such as personnel, engineering and purchasing into the planning process to improve the efficiency of the manufacturing enterprise (Chen, 2001, Chung and Snyder, 2000, Mabert et al., 2001). MRP II has certain extensions like rough cut capacity planning and capacity requirements planning for production scheduling on the shop floor as well as feedback from manufacturing shops on the progress of fabrication. Since the 1980s, the number of MRP II installations has continued to increase, as MRP II applications became available on mini and micro computers (Siriginidi, 2000). Like MRP, MRP II focused on the manufacturing process. Then MRP II was extended towards the more technical areas that cover the product development and production processes. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) supplied the entire conceptual framework for the integration of all business administrative and technical functions of a company, such as finance, sales and distribution, and human resources (Klaus et al., 2000). The next stage of MRP II evolution was just-in-time (JIT) methodology that combined with the plummeting price of computing to create the islands of automation in late 1980s. Over the last 60 years, many PPC systems and philosophies have been developed. These include material requirements planning (MRP), manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), enterprise resource planning (ERP), just in time (JIT), optimized production technology (OPT), advanced production scheduling (APS), supply chain management (SCM) and customer relationship management (CRM), either used individually or jointly (Koh, 2004). 3.1.1 Material requirement planning (MRP) Kulonda (2000) descried the evolution of MRP, dividing it in three different worlds. In the first world, MPS items typically are finished end items made to stock; MPS is stated in terms of forecast item demand converted to a series of production lots via time-phased order points or other rules. In the second world, the MPS could conceivably be stated as end items built entirely to order. If response time were not an issue, this approach would work quite well. Competitive force, however, often require shorter response times and inevitably some stocking of at least the longest lead time items occur. A relatively large number of different components are assembled to complete an end product that may have many specific variants. The third world of MRP has all the complexity of the second world with the additional complication that relatively numerous end items are built from relatively few raw materials. This can be visualized in part level count charts shown in 3.1. Within the MRP system a number of rules need to be specified. They include: acceptable lot sizes, safety stocks and reject allowances. There are three principles of MRP. They are: dependent on demand for the final product; netting of inventory with expected deliveries and open orders to give a balance on-hand; and time phasing by using information on lead times and needs. Three basic MRP inputs to the system are: master production schedule (MPS); the structured BOM for the MPS; and information on inventories, open orders and lead times. The aim of MRP systems is to minimize cost of inventories and maintain customer service levels. MRP benefits include the ability to rapidly re-plan and re-schedule in response to changes in a dynamic environment. It is flexible and responsive to the customer needs (Hines, 2004). The successes and disappointments of MRP as well as the key shortcomings of MRP (material requirement planning) are studied by Plenert (1999). He investigates consequences of the deficiencies means if they are not corrected. The difficulties encountered by firms in the implementation process of MRP may be traced back to a number of factors. The complexity of MRP systems, which, of course, is a relative concept varying according to the level of knowledge and experience available inside the firm prior to implementation (Wortmann, 1998, Wilson et al., 1994, Luscombe, 1994). There are usually several parameters to be initiated when implementing standard software. A considerable amount of intensive training is required. In fact, even though end-users are usually trained on a limited amount of functionality, key users need to acquire considerable technical competence. The organizations simply under-estimate the extent to which they have to change in order to accommodate their purchase. The effective management of technological change requires transformational leadership (Brown, 1994). One of the issues largely felt as critical concerns the resistance of managers and personnel to the organizational change that is induced by the adoption of new technologies. To this regard, several authors have underlined the importance of a sound involvement of shop-floor workers (Sommer, 1998, Weill et al., 1991). Valuable relevance has also been placed in the referring literature to technological problems, such as the unsuitability of MRP systems to optimize the internal workflow. In fact, frequent changes in schedules, a problem referred to as production nervousness, is an obstacle to successful implementation of MRP systems (Duchessi et al., 1998). Material Requirements Planning (MRP) has fallen into disfavor in 1980s, as demonstrated by the extensive literature and conference material coming out of organizations like the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) which discuss its shortcomings (Berger, 1987). MRP has received strong challenges of its effectiveness from Japan. It is believed that the only thing which is still keeping so many manufacturers with MRP is the difficulty in converting to other (Plenert, 1999). Looking at MRPs basic philosophy, we should be able to focus our scheduling only on what materials are needed, and when they are needed (Plenert, 1990b, Ritzman et al., 1984, Chase and Aquilano, 1995, Lee and Schniederjans, 1994, Nahmias, 1997, Schroder et al., 1981). MRP allows greater flexibility in product customization. The most obvious shortcoming in MRP usage is its focus on labor efficiency. Labor is not the resource that we need to be efficient at, especially since it causes inefficiencies in our most critical resource, materials. We need to minimize our routings, shortening lead times as much as possible. We need to do our buffering using safety capacity (labor and machine capacity buffers), not safety stock (materials capacity buffers) (Plenert, 1999). We should minimize the non-value-added steps to make them as efficient as possible. The other big builders of inventory are time and the large batch size. 3.1.2 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) The theory of MRPII has been well discussed in the literature and focuses are normally put on concept, methodology, application and future development (Ip and Yam, 1998). MRP II (Manufacturing Resource Planning) is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. The levels in an MRP II concept as outlined are applied to two plans in particular (Zapfel, 1996): Business Planning including Resource Requirements Planning (RRP) and Master Production Scheduling (MPS) including Rough-cut Capacity Planning (RCCP). Business planning level of a company identifies its objectives. The business plan integrates the plans from sales, finance and operations. The planned aggregate sales income, the planned cost of sales and operations, and all other expenses per planning period provide a basis for calculating the planned net income of the firm. The planning horizon is often a year or longer and a planning period a month or longer. To be feasible, the production plan is examined by the so-called resource requirements planning (RRP); that is, the resources required by a given aggregate production plan can be calculated. MRP II offers simulation capabilities and marries the operating system with the financial system so that what-if questions can be answered using the software system. If the business plan leads to resource requirements which are not feasible or which are unsatisfactory, the user can change the plan and a new simulation run is started to calculate the modified resource requirements. These s teps can be repeated until a feasible and satisfactory business plan is achieved. The aggregate production plan, accepted by the user, forms an important basis for master production scheduling. MRP II tends to link manufacturing, engineering, marketing, finance and management (Yusuf and Little, 1998); production operations-inventory production control, purchasing with production planning, Capacity Planning and Master Scheduling (Turbide, 1990); sales, logistics, production, engineering and supporting functions, the broad ingredients of almost all Manufacturing organization (Ip and Yam, 1998). It may also include costumer service- order entry, sales analysis, forecasting- with financial applications. The total is a single information control system that shares data among the various applications for the mutual benefit (Turbide, 1990). MRP II operates in a â€Å"pull† manner at the planning level. It is used for high-level planning of demand and inventory functions and preliminary capacity evaluations. Ip and Yam (1998) afford a master plan which integrates the technology and management of the strategic elements, problem definition, MRP II solutions, technical and procedural design, and implementation management in order to minimize the frustration and conflicts universally found in MRP II implementation process as well as to reduce disconnection amongst different stages of the implementation process. Ideally MRP II addresses operational planning in units; financial planning in money terms, and has simulation capability to answer â€Å"what-if† questions. It is made up of a variety of functions, each linked together: business planning, production planning, master production scheduling, material requirements planning, capacity requirements planning and the execution systems for capacity and priority. Outputs from these systems would be integrated with financial reports, such as the business plan, purchase commitment report, chipping budget, inventory production in money terms, etc. Manufacturing Resource Planning is a direct outgrowth and extension of a Material Resource Planning (MRP) (Higgins et al., 1998). 3.1.2.1 MRP II definitions: ‘If I had to sum up MRP II in one word, the word I would choose is discipline. Allowed three words, they would be discipline/performance measurement Sheldon (1991). He detailed the total implementation process, from inception to completion and divided the process into six steps, namely, education, common goal, fitness for use, accountability, performance measurement and systems/tools. In Table 3.1, the definition of MRP II is summarized. Table 3.1: Definition of MRP II Definition Reference MRP II is a well-defined process or set of calculations that is used to develop plans for the acquisition of the materials needed for production. (Turbide, 1990) MRP II is an information control philosophy that is often translated into software products containing, among other capabilities the MRP calculation function. MRP II is a system designed for managing all the resources of a manufacturing company. It consists of a comprehensive set of planning tools and techniques which integrate all functional areas of an organization (Tremblay, 1991) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. (Dougherty and Wallace, 1992) Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) is a long promising method that simplifies all the complex tasks of manufacturing management. (Chambers, 1996) MRP II is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. (Zapfel, 1996) Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) is a structured approach to optimize a companys internal Supply Chain. (Higgins et al., 1998) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of the manufacturing company. MRP II is an effective management system that has excellent planning and scheduling capability which can offer dramatic increases in customer service, significant gains in productivity, much higher inventory turns, and greater reduction in material costs. (Ip and Yam, 1998) MRP II system is a proactive materials strategy. It is a dynamic system and can adapt to change as it reflects upon the latest information in its planned order releases. (Towers et al., 2005) 3.1.2.2 MRP II benefits: The potential benefits those may receive from the MRP II are summarized below: Empirical research suggests that companies able to implement MRP II successfully report enhanced competitive positions, improved customer service levels, a better financial position, increased plant efficiency, heightened morale in production, more effective co-ordination with marketing and finance, more efficient production scheduling and reduced inventory levels, fewer component shortages, reduced manufacturing costs and lead times and improvements in inventory turnover (Humphreys et al., 2001, Brown and Roberts, 1992, Roberts and Barrar, 1992). When customers and suppliers (internal or external) request information that have been fully integrated throughout the Supply Chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, MRP II systems collate the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making (Broatch, 2001). MRP II systems, if implemented successfully, enhance and redesign business processes to eliminate non-value-added activities and allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Broatch, 2001). The focus of MRP II computer systems is on the efficiency and effectiveness of the internal processes. It offers a way to streamline and align business processes, increase operational and manufacturing efficiencies and bring order out of chaos (Nah, 2002). MRP II systems minimize the time and effort required to process business data and maximizes the application of that information. By facilitating data exchange throughout the organization, a MRP II system enables to coordinate such crucial activities as production planning, material planning, capacity planning and shop floor control (Plenert, 1999). MRP II is concerned mainly with scheduling of activities and the management of inventories. It is particularly useful where there is a need to produce components, items or sub-assemblies, which themselves are later used in the production of a final product. Organizations can improve their overall customer service through consistently meeting delivery promises, shortening delivery times and having products on hand when customer orders are received. MRP II can provide the necessary management information to ensure delivery promises can be kept. Where there is volatility in demand with unpredictable customer requirements and complex product structures, the information management capability of MRP II is particularly relevant (Towers et al., 2005). A well implemented MRP II system can: provide an organization with reliable lead times; meet its service delivery performance requirements; contribute to stable and consistent lead times and well informed decision-making; maintain lower level of safety stock; reduce the average inventory level and reduce inventory investments to a minimum (Towers et al., 2005). The uncertainty of demand can be minimized due to the fact that MRP II can provide an organization with a clear picture of the demand for a particular item and when organizations know their future needs they can negotiate their purchase agreements with suppliers and receive quantity discounts improving their financial position (Towers et al., 2005). Successful MRP II users have typically reported as much as 15 percent gain in manufacturing productivity, 50 percent reduction in overtime, 33 percent reduction in inventory investment and 80 percent reduction in inventory shortages (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II provides better control over the quantity and timing of deliveries of raw materials, parts, sub-assemblies and assemblies to production operations. 3.1.2.3 Pitfalls of MRP II: The main pitfalls of MRP II from various authenticated literature are listed below: Impressive though the benefits are, there is evidence suggesting that, as with so many similar technologies, few companies are able to maximize them. White et al. (1982) consider that 50 per cent of organizations do not achieve their objectives. Archer (1991) has said that 70 per cent of systems may be regarded as failures. Ho et al. (1992) has stated that ‘few firms have been able to realize the full potential offered by MRP II. While relative percentages of successful and unsuccessful implementations differ from study to study, each demonstrates a surprisingly high failure rate. Implementation of MRP II system requires major managerial innovations and organizational changes in addition to the installation of computer hardware and software (Lau et al., 2002). The heart of an MRP II system is MRP. MRP II does consider resource capacity level when generating the POR schedule. If an overload is identified, it will flag and recommend the user to reschedule. The question is how frequent should the user reschedule? Both Ho et al. (1995) and Sridharan and LaForge (1989) showed that rescheduling induces system nervousness, which leads to further underperformance. MRP II has been criticized by a number of authors on the grounds that few benefits accrue for high implementation costs (Burns et al., 1991, Sum and Yang, 1993). Unsuccessful MRP II implementation not only deprives companies of potentially huge benefits but also results in financial losses and disruptions in operations (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II concept is only partially suited to production planning in the case of uncertain demand. There is little help with the necessary aggregation and disaggregation process, especially when demand uncertainty exists. It is difficult for the user of MRP II to find a robust aggregate plan for master production schedule (Zapfel, 1996). Critics of MRP II points to the rigidity of the process: the logic that demands batches and multiple; the fixed lead time which takes no account of current capacity; the standard queue concept in front of a work center etc. Increasing competitive pressure, manifested by reduced lead times, smaller batch sizes, lower stocks and ever more demanding customers have pushed MRP II to its limits (Porter et al., 1996). 3.1.2.4 Reasons for failure: One of the principal reasons for the failure of MRP II and other large technologically sophisticated systems is that organizations simply underestimate the extent to which they have to change in order to assimilate what is in reality a new way of running the company (Humphreys et al., 2001). MRP II failure have embraced technical problems; the difficulties involved in selecting and evaluating cost effective MRP II packages and a host of historical, cultural, structural and managerial issues (White, 1980, Kinnie et al., 1992, Wight, 1990, Wilson et al., 1994); expertise needed to implement and use effective MRP II systems; lead times management; design of the production environment, routing and quality information; Infinite capacity availability; batch and lot sizing (Higgins et al., 1998). An accurate demand forecast is an essential foundation for the successful operation of an MRP II system. Poor sales forecasting had been identified by senior management as one of the main reasons for the MRP II implementation failure (Humphreys et al., 2001). 3.1.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) The Gartner Group of Stamford, CT, USA, coined the term ERP in the early 1970s to describe the business software system. The name ERP was derived from the terms material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). The maturity stage of ERP occurred in the mid-1990s. ERP is the third generation of planning software. Material requirements planning (MRP) was the first generation, manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) the second and ERP the third. The primary purpose of ERP is to create a seamless integration of interrelated information throughout the business organization. A system of software programs is used to develop the necessary links between the various business functions so that needed information is readily available. There are 8 (eight) major functions and 33 (thirty three) sub-functions, as well as 22 (twenty two) primary modules and several sub-modules (Umble et al., 2001). A typical ERP implementation takes anywhere from one to five years (M abert et al., 2003). ERP system is not just a pure software package to be tailored to an organization but an organizational infrastructure that affects how people work and that it â€Å"imposes its own logic on a companys strategy, organization, and culture† (Shehab et al., 2004, Davenport, 1998, Lee and Lee, 2000). 3.1.3.1 Definition of ERP When customers and suppliers request information that have been fully integrated throughout the value chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, ERP systems collect the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making. They allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Nah, 2002). These activities cover accounting and financial management, human resources management, manufacturing and logistics, sales and marketing, and customer relationship management. Table 3.2 shows definitions of ERP, cited in different literatures. Table 3.2: Definition of ERP Definition Reference ERP systems are enterprise-wide on-line interactive systems that support cross-functional processes using a common database. ERP systems are designed to provide, at least in theory, seamless integration of processes across functional areas with improved workflow, standardization of various business practices, and access to real-time up-to-date data. (Davenport, 1998) ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be a challenging, time consuming and expensive project for any company. ERP is not only an IT solution, but also a strategic business solution. As an IT solution, ERP system, if implemented fully across an entire enterprise, connects various components of the enterprise through a logical transmission and sharing of data. (Norris et al., 2000) ERP is a commodity, a product in the form of computer software. (Klaus et al., 2000) ERP is a development objective of mapping all processes and data of an enterprise into a comprehensive integrative structure. ERP is a key element of an infrastructure that delivers a solution to business. ERP a method for the effective planning and controlling of all the resources needed to take, make, ship and account for customer orders in a manufacturing, distribution or service company. (Nah, 2002) ERP system is a packaged business software system that allows a company to automate and integrate the majority of its business processes, and share common data and practices across the entire enterprise. (Seddon et al., 2003) ERP is a â€Å"do it all† system that performs everything from entry of sales orders to customer service. It attempts to integrate the suppliers and customers with the manufacturing environment of the organization. (Shehab et al., 2004) 3.1.3.2 Benefits of ERP ERP systems have certain advantages such as low operating cost and improving customer service (Shehab et al., 2004). In implementing an ERP solution, an organization can quickly upgrade its business processes to industry standards, taking advantage of the many years of business systems reengineering and integration experience of the major ERP vendors (Myerson, 2002). The practical benefits of ERP are divided into five aspects by Seddon et al. (2003): operational, managerial, strategic, IT infrastructure, and organizational (Table 3.3). Table 3.3: Benefits of ERP Operational benefits: By automating business processes and enabling process changes, they can offer benefits in terms of cost reduction, cycle term reduction, productivity improvement, quality improvement, and improved customer service. Managerial benefits: With centralized database and built-in data analysis capabilities, they can help an organization achieve better resource management, improved decision making and planning, and performance improvement. Strategic benefits: With large-scale business involvement and internal/external integration capabilities, they can assist in business growth, alliance, innovation, cost, differentiation, and external linkages. IT infrastructure benefits: With integrated and standard application architecture, they support business flexibility, reduced IT cost and marginal cost of business units IT, and increased capability for quick implementation of new applications. Organizational benefits: They affect the growth of organizational capabilities by supporting organization structure change, facilitating employee learning, empowering workers, and building common visions. 3.1.3.3 Disadvantages of ERP: ERP systems have some disadvantages due to the tight integration of application modules and data. Huge storage needs, networking requirements and training overheads are frequently mentioned ERP problems. However, the scale of business process re-engineering (BPR) and customizations tasks involved in the software implementation process are the major reasons for ERP dissatisfaction. ERP projects are large, costly and difficult and that they require large investment in capital and staff and management time (Adam and ODoherty, 2000). Yen et al. (2002) identified the following disadvantages of ERP: Its high cost prevents small businesses from setting up an ERP system The privacy concern within an ERP system Lack of trained people may affect ERPs efficiency Implementation of an ERP project is painful Customization is costly and time-consuming. Some of these shortcomings have been discussed by OConnor and Dodd (2000). Implementation of an ERP system is an extensive, lengthy and costly process, typically measured in millions of dollars. An ERP implementation can take many years to be completed and cost tens of millions of dollars for a moderate size firm and upwards of $100 million for large international organizations (Mabert et al., 2000). Even with significant investments in time and resources, there is no guarantee of a successful outcome (Mabert et al., 2003). According to Shehab et al. (2004), the ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive project for a company. It costs tens of millions of dollar for a medium sized company and $300-500 million for large international corporations. There are also some possible hidden costs that may include losing some very intelligent employees after the initial implementation is done, continual imp Manufacturing Resource Planning Models Manufacturing Resource Planning Models Manufacturing Resource Planning Models under Uncertainty and Commonality for Multi-products Multi-period Multistage Production Environment Chapter 3: Literature Review In this chapter, the following areas of research are investigated to lay the foundation for the intended mathematical models: manufacturing resources planning background, benefits and limitations; manufacturing resources planning models under different uncertainties; and commonality in manufacturing resources planning models. 3.1 Evolution of manufacturing environment The field of production planning and control has undergone tremendous change in the last 50 years. Prior to the 1960s, inventory was controlled by a manual system, utilizing various techniques: stock replenishment, reorder points, EOQ (economic order quantity) (McGarrie, 1998), and ABC classifications, to name a few (Ptak, 1991). Gilbert and Schonberger (1983) provide a history of production control, while Lee (1993) comments that by the mid-1970s, enough experience of material requirements planning (MRP) had been gained and the importance of the master production schedule (MPS) was realized. In the 1950s, MRP were the first off-the-shelf business applications to support the creation and maintenance of material master data and bill-of-materials (demand-based 14 planning) across all products and parts in one or more plants. These early packages were able to process mass data but only with limited processing depth (Klaus et al., 2000). From the 1940s to the early 1960s, material control consisted of basic ‘order point formulae used to maintain a level average inventory balance. In 1965, Joseph Orlicky of the J. I. Case Company devised a new approach to material management, called material requirement planning (MRP) to serve as a platform to answer four questions, known as the ‘Universal Manufacturing Equation (Towers et al., 2005): What are we going to make, What does it take to make, What do we have and What do we have to get. The respective answer of the first three questions lie in the blueprint of production plan: the master production schedule (MPS), the bill of material (BOM) and the physical inventory records themselves. While MRP was certainly a vast improvement over simple manual method, the potential to stretch its boundary even further was soon recognized. A companys production is constrained by not only its inventory need but also by equipment and personnel capacity, facet of the plant not considered in the Universal Manufacturing Equation. MRP at its core is a time phased order release system that schedules and releases manufacturing work orders and purchase orders, so that sub-assemblies and components arrive at the assembly station just as they are required. As competitive pressures increased and users became more sophisticated, MRP evolved and expanded to include more business functions such as product costing and marketing. In 1975 the next generation system, Closed-Loop MRP, integrated capacity factors into the MRP structure and used feedback on production status to maintain the validity of planning decisions as requirements changed. One crucial link in the manufacturing decision chain was still missing- the financial point of view. With advent of computer system in the early 1980s the development of effective shop-floor scheduling tools had at that time been dominated by the top down approach of manufacturing resource planning known as MRP II for controlling production operations (Towers et al., 2005). The introduction of MRP II five years later served to bridge the gap. The operational Closed-Loop MRP plan, presented in material units such as pieces and pounds, was translated into financial dollar terms, enabling the entire organization to work off a single set of data. Simulation capability was also developed to answer ‘what if planning questions with action oriented replies. A major purpose of MRP II is to integrate primary functions (i.e. production, marketing and finance) and other functions such as personnel, engineering and purchasing into the planning process to improve the efficiency of the manufacturing enterprise (Chen, 2001, Chung and Snyder, 2000, Mabert et al., 2001). MRP II has certain extensions like rough cut capacity planning and capacity requirements planning for production scheduling on the shop floor as well as feedback from manufacturing shops on the progress of fabrication. Since the 1980s, the number of MRP II installations has continued to increase, as MRP II applications became available on mini and micro computers (Siriginidi, 2000). Like MRP, MRP II focused on the manufacturing process. Then MRP II was extended towards the more technical areas that cover the product development and production processes. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) supplied the entire conceptual framework for the integration of all business administrative and technical functions of a company, such as finance, sales and distribution, and human resources (Klaus et al., 2000). The next stage of MRP II evolution was just-in-time (JIT) methodology that combined with the plummeting price of computing to create the islands of automation in late 1980s. Over the last 60 years, many PPC systems and philosophies have been developed. These include material requirements planning (MRP), manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), enterprise resource planning (ERP), just in time (JIT), optimized production technology (OPT), advanced production scheduling (APS), supply chain management (SCM) and customer relationship management (CRM), either used individually or jointly (Koh, 2004). 3.1.1 Material requirement planning (MRP) Kulonda (2000) descried the evolution of MRP, dividing it in three different worlds. In the first world, MPS items typically are finished end items made to stock; MPS is stated in terms of forecast item demand converted to a series of production lots via time-phased order points or other rules. In the second world, the MPS could conceivably be stated as end items built entirely to order. If response time were not an issue, this approach would work quite well. Competitive force, however, often require shorter response times and inevitably some stocking of at least the longest lead time items occur. A relatively large number of different components are assembled to complete an end product that may have many specific variants. The third world of MRP has all the complexity of the second world with the additional complication that relatively numerous end items are built from relatively few raw materials. This can be visualized in part level count charts shown in 3.1. Within the MRP system a number of rules need to be specified. They include: acceptable lot sizes, safety stocks and reject allowances. There are three principles of MRP. They are: dependent on demand for the final product; netting of inventory with expected deliveries and open orders to give a balance on-hand; and time phasing by using information on lead times and needs. Three basic MRP inputs to the system are: master production schedule (MPS); the structured BOM for the MPS; and information on inventories, open orders and lead times. The aim of MRP systems is to minimize cost of inventories and maintain customer service levels. MRP benefits include the ability to rapidly re-plan and re-schedule in response to changes in a dynamic environment. It is flexible and responsive to the customer needs (Hines, 2004). The successes and disappointments of MRP as well as the key shortcomings of MRP (material requirement planning) are studied by Plenert (1999). He investigates consequences of the deficiencies means if they are not corrected. The difficulties encountered by firms in the implementation process of MRP may be traced back to a number of factors. The complexity of MRP systems, which, of course, is a relative concept varying according to the level of knowledge and experience available inside the firm prior to implementation (Wortmann, 1998, Wilson et al., 1994, Luscombe, 1994). There are usually several parameters to be initiated when implementing standard software. A considerable amount of intensive training is required. In fact, even though end-users are usually trained on a limited amount of functionality, key users need to acquire considerable technical competence. The organizations simply under-estimate the extent to which they have to change in order to accommodate their purchase. The effective management of technological change requires transformational leadership (Brown, 1994). One of the issues largely felt as critical concerns the resistance of managers and personnel to the organizational change that is induced by the adoption of new technologies. To this regard, several authors have underlined the importance of a sound involvement of shop-floor workers (Sommer, 1998, Weill et al., 1991). Valuable relevance has also been placed in the referring literature to technological problems, such as the unsuitability of MRP systems to optimize the internal workflow. In fact, frequent changes in schedules, a problem referred to as production nervousness, is an obstacle to successful implementation of MRP systems (Duchessi et al., 1998). Material Requirements Planning (MRP) has fallen into disfavor in 1980s, as demonstrated by the extensive literature and conference material coming out of organizations like the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) which discuss its shortcomings (Berger, 1987). MRP has received strong challenges of its effectiveness from Japan. It is believed that the only thing which is still keeping so many manufacturers with MRP is the difficulty in converting to other (Plenert, 1999). Looking at MRPs basic philosophy, we should be able to focus our scheduling only on what materials are needed, and when they are needed (Plenert, 1990b, Ritzman et al., 1984, Chase and Aquilano, 1995, Lee and Schniederjans, 1994, Nahmias, 1997, Schroder et al., 1981). MRP allows greater flexibility in product customization. The most obvious shortcoming in MRP usage is its focus on labor efficiency. Labor is not the resource that we need to be efficient at, especially since it causes inefficiencies in our most critical resource, materials. We need to minimize our routings, shortening lead times as much as possible. We need to do our buffering using safety capacity (labor and machine capacity buffers), not safety stock (materials capacity buffers) (Plenert, 1999). We should minimize the non-value-added steps to make them as efficient as possible. The other big builders of inventory are time and the large batch size. 3.1.2 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) The theory of MRPII has been well discussed in the literature and focuses are normally put on concept, methodology, application and future development (Ip and Yam, 1998). MRP II (Manufacturing Resource Planning) is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. The levels in an MRP II concept as outlined are applied to two plans in particular (Zapfel, 1996): Business Planning including Resource Requirements Planning (RRP) and Master Production Scheduling (MPS) including Rough-cut Capacity Planning (RCCP). Business planning level of a company identifies its objectives. The business plan integrates the plans from sales, finance and operations. The planned aggregate sales income, the planned cost of sales and operations, and all other expenses per planning period provide a basis for calculating the planned net income of the firm. The planning horizon is often a year or longer and a planning period a month or longer. To be feasible, the production plan is examined by the so-called resource requirements planning (RRP); that is, the resources required by a given aggregate production plan can be calculated. MRP II offers simulation capabilities and marries the operating system with the financial system so that what-if questions can be answered using the software system. If the business plan leads to resource requirements which are not feasible or which are unsatisfactory, the user can change the plan and a new simulation run is started to calculate the modified resource requirements. These s teps can be repeated until a feasible and satisfactory business plan is achieved. The aggregate production plan, accepted by the user, forms an important basis for master production scheduling. MRP II tends to link manufacturing, engineering, marketing, finance and management (Yusuf and Little, 1998); production operations-inventory production control, purchasing with production planning, Capacity Planning and Master Scheduling (Turbide, 1990); sales, logistics, production, engineering and supporting functions, the broad ingredients of almost all Manufacturing organization (Ip and Yam, 1998). It may also include costumer service- order entry, sales analysis, forecasting- with financial applications. The total is a single information control system that shares data among the various applications for the mutual benefit (Turbide, 1990). MRP II operates in a â€Å"pull† manner at the planning level. It is used for high-level planning of demand and inventory functions and preliminary capacity evaluations. Ip and Yam (1998) afford a master plan which integrates the technology and management of the strategic elements, problem definition, MRP II solutions, technical and procedural design, and implementation management in order to minimize the frustration and conflicts universally found in MRP II implementation process as well as to reduce disconnection amongst different stages of the implementation process. Ideally MRP II addresses operational planning in units; financial planning in money terms, and has simulation capability to answer â€Å"what-if† questions. It is made up of a variety of functions, each linked together: business planning, production planning, master production scheduling, material requirements planning, capacity requirements planning and the execution systems for capacity and priority. Outputs from these systems would be integrated with financial reports, such as the business plan, purchase commitment report, chipping budget, inventory production in money terms, etc. Manufacturing Resource Planning is a direct outgrowth and extension of a Material Resource Planning (MRP) (Higgins et al., 1998). 3.1.2.1 MRP II definitions: ‘If I had to sum up MRP II in one word, the word I would choose is discipline. Allowed three words, they would be discipline/performance measurement Sheldon (1991). He detailed the total implementation process, from inception to completion and divided the process into six steps, namely, education, common goal, fitness for use, accountability, performance measurement and systems/tools. In Table 3.1, the definition of MRP II is summarized. Table 3.1: Definition of MRP II Definition Reference MRP II is a well-defined process or set of calculations that is used to develop plans for the acquisition of the materials needed for production. (Turbide, 1990) MRP II is an information control philosophy that is often translated into software products containing, among other capabilities the MRP calculation function. MRP II is a system designed for managing all the resources of a manufacturing company. It consists of a comprehensive set of planning tools and techniques which integrate all functional areas of an organization (Tremblay, 1991) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. (Dougherty and Wallace, 1992) Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) is a long promising method that simplifies all the complex tasks of manufacturing management. (Chambers, 1996) MRP II is a hierarchically structured information system which is based on the idea of controlling all flows of materials and goods by integrating the plans of sales, finance and operations. (Zapfel, 1996) Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) is a structured approach to optimize a companys internal Supply Chain. (Higgins et al., 1998) MRP II is a method for the effective planning of all resources of the manufacturing company. MRP II is an effective management system that has excellent planning and scheduling capability which can offer dramatic increases in customer service, significant gains in productivity, much higher inventory turns, and greater reduction in material costs. (Ip and Yam, 1998) MRP II system is a proactive materials strategy. It is a dynamic system and can adapt to change as it reflects upon the latest information in its planned order releases. (Towers et al., 2005) 3.1.2.2 MRP II benefits: The potential benefits those may receive from the MRP II are summarized below: Empirical research suggests that companies able to implement MRP II successfully report enhanced competitive positions, improved customer service levels, a better financial position, increased plant efficiency, heightened morale in production, more effective co-ordination with marketing and finance, more efficient production scheduling and reduced inventory levels, fewer component shortages, reduced manufacturing costs and lead times and improvements in inventory turnover (Humphreys et al., 2001, Brown and Roberts, 1992, Roberts and Barrar, 1992). When customers and suppliers (internal or external) request information that have been fully integrated throughout the Supply Chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, MRP II systems collate the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making (Broatch, 2001). MRP II systems, if implemented successfully, enhance and redesign business processes to eliminate non-value-added activities and allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Broatch, 2001). The focus of MRP II computer systems is on the efficiency and effectiveness of the internal processes. It offers a way to streamline and align business processes, increase operational and manufacturing efficiencies and bring order out of chaos (Nah, 2002). MRP II systems minimize the time and effort required to process business data and maximizes the application of that information. By facilitating data exchange throughout the organization, a MRP II system enables to coordinate such crucial activities as production planning, material planning, capacity planning and shop floor control (Plenert, 1999). MRP II is concerned mainly with scheduling of activities and the management of inventories. It is particularly useful where there is a need to produce components, items or sub-assemblies, which themselves are later used in the production of a final product. Organizations can improve their overall customer service through consistently meeting delivery promises, shortening delivery times and having products on hand when customer orders are received. MRP II can provide the necessary management information to ensure delivery promises can be kept. Where there is volatility in demand with unpredictable customer requirements and complex product structures, the information management capability of MRP II is particularly relevant (Towers et al., 2005). A well implemented MRP II system can: provide an organization with reliable lead times; meet its service delivery performance requirements; contribute to stable and consistent lead times and well informed decision-making; maintain lower level of safety stock; reduce the average inventory level and reduce inventory investments to a minimum (Towers et al., 2005). The uncertainty of demand can be minimized due to the fact that MRP II can provide an organization with a clear picture of the demand for a particular item and when organizations know their future needs they can negotiate their purchase agreements with suppliers and receive quantity discounts improving their financial position (Towers et al., 2005). Successful MRP II users have typically reported as much as 15 percent gain in manufacturing productivity, 50 percent reduction in overtime, 33 percent reduction in inventory investment and 80 percent reduction in inventory shortages (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II provides better control over the quantity and timing of deliveries of raw materials, parts, sub-assemblies and assemblies to production operations. 3.1.2.3 Pitfalls of MRP II: The main pitfalls of MRP II from various authenticated literature are listed below: Impressive though the benefits are, there is evidence suggesting that, as with so many similar technologies, few companies are able to maximize them. White et al. (1982) consider that 50 per cent of organizations do not achieve their objectives. Archer (1991) has said that 70 per cent of systems may be regarded as failures. Ho et al. (1992) has stated that ‘few firms have been able to realize the full potential offered by MRP II. While relative percentages of successful and unsuccessful implementations differ from study to study, each demonstrates a surprisingly high failure rate. Implementation of MRP II system requires major managerial innovations and organizational changes in addition to the installation of computer hardware and software (Lau et al., 2002). The heart of an MRP II system is MRP. MRP II does consider resource capacity level when generating the POR schedule. If an overload is identified, it will flag and recommend the user to reschedule. The question is how frequent should the user reschedule? Both Ho et al. (1995) and Sridharan and LaForge (1989) showed that rescheduling induces system nervousness, which leads to further underperformance. MRP II has been criticized by a number of authors on the grounds that few benefits accrue for high implementation costs (Burns et al., 1991, Sum and Yang, 1993). Unsuccessful MRP II implementation not only deprives companies of potentially huge benefits but also results in financial losses and disruptions in operations (Towers et al., 2005). MRP II concept is only partially suited to production planning in the case of uncertain demand. There is little help with the necessary aggregation and disaggregation process, especially when demand uncertainty exists. It is difficult for the user of MRP II to find a robust aggregate plan for master production schedule (Zapfel, 1996). Critics of MRP II points to the rigidity of the process: the logic that demands batches and multiple; the fixed lead time which takes no account of current capacity; the standard queue concept in front of a work center etc. Increasing competitive pressure, manifested by reduced lead times, smaller batch sizes, lower stocks and ever more demanding customers have pushed MRP II to its limits (Porter et al., 1996). 3.1.2.4 Reasons for failure: One of the principal reasons for the failure of MRP II and other large technologically sophisticated systems is that organizations simply underestimate the extent to which they have to change in order to assimilate what is in reality a new way of running the company (Humphreys et al., 2001). MRP II failure have embraced technical problems; the difficulties involved in selecting and evaluating cost effective MRP II packages and a host of historical, cultural, structural and managerial issues (White, 1980, Kinnie et al., 1992, Wight, 1990, Wilson et al., 1994); expertise needed to implement and use effective MRP II systems; lead times management; design of the production environment, routing and quality information; Infinite capacity availability; batch and lot sizing (Higgins et al., 1998). An accurate demand forecast is an essential foundation for the successful operation of an MRP II system. Poor sales forecasting had been identified by senior management as one of the main reasons for the MRP II implementation failure (Humphreys et al., 2001). 3.1.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) The Gartner Group of Stamford, CT, USA, coined the term ERP in the early 1970s to describe the business software system. The name ERP was derived from the terms material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). The maturity stage of ERP occurred in the mid-1990s. ERP is the third generation of planning software. Material requirements planning (MRP) was the first generation, manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) the second and ERP the third. The primary purpose of ERP is to create a seamless integration of interrelated information throughout the business organization. A system of software programs is used to develop the necessary links between the various business functions so that needed information is readily available. There are 8 (eight) major functions and 33 (thirty three) sub-functions, as well as 22 (twenty two) primary modules and several sub-modules (Umble et al., 2001). A typical ERP implementation takes anywhere from one to five years (M abert et al., 2003). ERP system is not just a pure software package to be tailored to an organization but an organizational infrastructure that affects how people work and that it â€Å"imposes its own logic on a companys strategy, organization, and culture† (Shehab et al., 2004, Davenport, 1998, Lee and Lee, 2000). 3.1.3.1 Definition of ERP When customers and suppliers request information that have been fully integrated throughout the value chain or when executives require integrated strategies and tactics in areas such as manufacturing, inventory, procurement and accounting, ERP systems collect the data for analysis and transform the data into useful information that companies can use to support business decision-making. They allow companies to focus on core and truly value-added activities (Nah, 2002). These activities cover accounting and financial management, human resources management, manufacturing and logistics, sales and marketing, and customer relationship management. Table 3.2 shows definitions of ERP, cited in different literatures. Table 3.2: Definition of ERP Definition Reference ERP systems are enterprise-wide on-line interactive systems that support cross-functional processes using a common database. ERP systems are designed to provide, at least in theory, seamless integration of processes across functional areas with improved workflow, standardization of various business practices, and access to real-time up-to-date data. (Davenport, 1998) ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be a challenging, time consuming and expensive project for any company. ERP is not only an IT solution, but also a strategic business solution. As an IT solution, ERP system, if implemented fully across an entire enterprise, connects various components of the enterprise through a logical transmission and sharing of data. (Norris et al., 2000) ERP is a commodity, a product in the form of computer software. (Klaus et al., 2000) ERP is a development objective of mapping all processes and data of an enterprise into a comprehensive integrative structure. ERP is a key element of an infrastructure that delivers a solution to business. ERP a method for the effective planning and controlling of all the resources needed to take, make, ship and account for customer orders in a manufacturing, distribution or service company. (Nah, 2002) ERP system is a packaged business software system that allows a company to automate and integrate the majority of its business processes, and share common data and practices across the entire enterprise. (Seddon et al., 2003) ERP is a â€Å"do it all† system that performs everything from entry of sales orders to customer service. It attempts to integrate the suppliers and customers with the manufacturing environment of the organization. (Shehab et al., 2004) 3.1.3.2 Benefits of ERP ERP systems have certain advantages such as low operating cost and improving customer service (Shehab et al., 2004). In implementing an ERP solution, an organization can quickly upgrade its business processes to industry standards, taking advantage of the many years of business systems reengineering and integration experience of the major ERP vendors (Myerson, 2002). The practical benefits of ERP are divided into five aspects by Seddon et al. (2003): operational, managerial, strategic, IT infrastructure, and organizational (Table 3.3). Table 3.3: Benefits of ERP Operational benefits: By automating business processes and enabling process changes, they can offer benefits in terms of cost reduction, cycle term reduction, productivity improvement, quality improvement, and improved customer service. Managerial benefits: With centralized database and built-in data analysis capabilities, they can help an organization achieve better resource management, improved decision making and planning, and performance improvement. Strategic benefits: With large-scale business involvement and internal/external integration capabilities, they can assist in business growth, alliance, innovation, cost, differentiation, and external linkages. IT infrastructure benefits: With integrated and standard application architecture, they support business flexibility, reduced IT cost and marginal cost of business units IT, and increased capability for quick implementation of new applications. Organizational benefits: They affect the growth of organizational capabilities by supporting organization structure change, facilitating employee learning, empowering workers, and building common visions. 3.1.3.3 Disadvantages of ERP: ERP systems have some disadvantages due to the tight integration of application modules and data. Huge storage needs, networking requirements and training overheads are frequently mentioned ERP problems. However, the scale of business process re-engineering (BPR) and customizations tasks involved in the software implementation process are the major reasons for ERP dissatisfaction. ERP projects are large, costly and difficult and that they require large investment in capital and staff and management time (Adam and ODoherty, 2000). Yen et al. (2002) identified the following disadvantages of ERP: Its high cost prevents small businesses from setting up an ERP system The privacy concern within an ERP system Lack of trained people may affect ERPs efficiency Implementation of an ERP project is painful Customization is costly and time-consuming. Some of these shortcomings have been discussed by OConnor and Dodd (2000). Implementation of an ERP system is an extensive, lengthy and costly process, typically measured in millions of dollars. An ERP implementation can take many years to be completed and cost tens of millions of dollars for a moderate size firm and upwards of $100 million for large international organizations (Mabert et al., 2000). Even with significant investments in time and resources, there is no guarantee of a successful outcome (Mabert et al., 2003). According to Shehab et al. (2004), the ERP systems are complex and implementing one can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive project for a company. It costs tens of millions of dollar for a medium sized company and $300-500 million for large international corporations. There are also some possible hidden costs that may include losing some very intelligent employees after the initial implementation is done, continual imp